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  3. Why the inductive and mathematical sciences, after their first rapid develo

Why the inductive and mathematical sciences, after their first rapid develo

游客2023-11-23  22
问题      Why the inductive and mathematical sciences, after their first rapid development at the culmination of Greek civilization, advanced so slowly for two thousand years--and why in the following two hundred years a knowledge of natural and mathematical science has accumulated, which so vastly exceeds all that was previously known that these sciences may be justly regarded as the products of our own times--are questions which have interested the modem philosopher not less than the objects with which these sciences are more immediately conversant. Was it the employment of a new method of re search, or in the exercise of greater virtue in the use of the old methods, that this singular modem phenomenon had its ori gin? Was the long period one of arrested development, and is the modem, eraone of normal growth? Or should we ascribe the characteristics of both periods to so-called historical accidents--to the influence of conjunctions in circumstances of which no explanation is possible, save in the omnipotence and wisdom of a guiding Providence?
     The explanation which has become commonplace, that the ancients employed deduction chiefly in their scientific inquiries, while the modems employ induction, proves to be too narrow, and fails upon close examination to point with sufficient distinctness the contrast that is evident between ancient and modem scientific doctrines and inquiries. For all, knowledge is founded on observation, and proceeds from this by analysis and synthesis, b/induction and deduction, and if possible by verification, or by new appeals to observation under the guidance of deduction--by steps which are indeed corelative parts of one method; and the ancient sciences afford examples of every one of these methods, or parts of one method, which have been generalized from the examples of science.
     A failure to employ or to employ adequately and one of these partial methods, an imperfection in the arts and resources of observation and experiment, carelessness in observation, neglect of relevant facts, vagueness and carelessness in reasoning, and the failure to draw the consequences of theory and test them by appeal to experiment and observation--there are the faults which cause all failures to ascertain truth, whether among the ancients or the modems; but this statement does not explain why the modern is possessed of a greater virtue, and by what means he attained his superiority. Much less does it explain the sudden growth of science in recent times.
     The attempt to discover the explanation of this phenomenon in the antithesis of "facts" and "theories" or "facts" and "ideas"--in the neglect among the ancients of the former, and their too exclusive attention to the latter---proves also to be too narrow, as well as open to the charge of vagueness. For, in the first place, the antithesis is not complete. Facts and theories are not coordinate species. Theories, if true, are facts--a particular class of facts indeed, generally complex ones, but still facts. Facts, on the other hand, even in the narrowest signification of the word, if they be at all complex, and if a logical connection subsists between their constituents, have all the positive attributes of theories.
     Nevertheless, this distinction, however inadequate it may be to explain the source of true method in science, is well founded, and connotes an important character in true method. A fact is proposition of which the verification by an appeal to the primary sources of our knowledge or to experience is direct and simple. A theory, on the other band, if true has all the characteristics of a fact, except that its verification is possible only by indirect, remotes, and difficult means. To convert theories into facts is to add simple verification, and the theory thus acquires the full characteristics of a fact. [br] The difference between "fact’ and "theory" ______.
选项 A、is that the latter needs confirmation
B、rests on the simplicity of the former
C、is the one between old Greeks and modem scientists
D、helps us know deduction
答案 A
解析 A项意为“后者需要证实”。答案在第4、5段。第4段：试图在事实的对立面和理论中，或事实和思想中发现上述现象的解释看起来也太狭隘，也会因模糊不清遭批评。因为，对立面不全面，事实和理论不同类的事物。理论，如果是真正的理论，就是事实——一种特殊类别的事实。一般复杂，但仍是事实。而事卖，从词的狭义意义上来说，如果很复杂，如果各成分中都存在逻辑的关系，就具有理论的一切主要特性。第5段第2句：事实是一个提议，通过运用知识的源泉和经验而证实的提议直接而又简单。而理论，若是真理论，就有事实的一切特性(除非其证实只能通过非
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